Major English-language works have employed the spelling 'Timbuctoo', and this is considered the correct English form by scholars 'Timbuctou' and 'Timbuctu' are sometimes used as well. The German spelling 'Timbuktu' and its variant 'Timbucktu' have passed into English and the former has become widely used in recent years. French spelling often appears in international reference as 'Tombouctou'. Over the centuries, the spelling of Timbuktu has varied a great deal: from Tenbuch on the Catalan Atlas (1375), to traveller Antonio Malfante's Thambet, used in a letter he wrote in 1447 and also adopted by Alvise Cadamosto in his Voyages of Cadamosto, to Heinrich Barth's Timbúktu and Timbu'ktu. These stories fuelled speculation in Europe, where the city's reputation shifted from being extremely rich to being mysterious. Several notable historic writers, such as Shabeni and Leo Africanus, wrote about the city. In its Golden Age, the town's numerous Islamic scholars and extensive trading network supported an important book trade: together with the campuses of the Sankore Madrasah, an Islamic university, this established Timbuktu as a scholarly centre in Africa. Presently, Timbuktu is impoverished and suffers from desertification. Different tribes governed until the French took over in 1893, a situation that lasted until it became part of the current Republic of Mali in 1960.
However, the golden age of the city, when it was a major learning and cultural centre of the Mali Empire, was over, and it entered a long period of decline. The invaders established a new ruling class, the Arma, who after 1612 became virtually independent of Morocco. A Moroccan army defeated the Songhai in 1591 and made Timbuktu, rather than Gao, their capital. In the first half of the 15th century, the Tuareg tribes took control of the city for a short period until the expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the city in 1468. It became part of the Mali Empire early in the 14th century. After a shift in trading routes, particularly after the visit by Mansa Musa around 1325, Timbuktu flourished from the trade in salt, gold, ivory, and slaves. Timbuktu started out as a seasonal settlement and became a permanent settlement early in the 12th century. It had a population of 54,453 in the 2009 census. The town is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrative regions of Mali. The timestamp is only as accurate as the clock in the camera, and it may be completely wrong.Timbuktu ( / ˌ t ɪ m b ʌ k ˈ t uː/ TIM-buk- TOO French: Tombouctou Tuareg: ⵜⵏⴱⴾⵜ, romanized: Tin Buqt Koyra Chiini: Tumbutu) is a city in Mali, situated twenty kilometres (12 mi) north of the Niger River. If the file has been modified from its original state, some details such as the timestamp may not fully reflect those of the original file.
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